New Kings and Kingdoms

The tripartite struggle was a prolonged conflict from the 8th to 10th century CE among the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, and Palas. Kanauj was important because it was a wealthy city on the Ganga and controlling it symbolised political supremacy over northern India. All three powers fought repeatedly to capture and hold the city, but none could retain it permanently, which weakened all three dynasties.

Samantas were subordinate chiefs or large landholders who served under a king. They provided military support and tribute in exchange for land grants and protection. When kings grew weak, powerful Samantas declared independence and formed their own kingdoms. They adopted grand titles like Maha-Samanta. This system was similar to feudalism and was a key feature of political organisation in medieval India between the 7th and 12th centuries.

Rajaraja I ruled from 985 to 1014 CE and greatly expanded the Chola Empire across South India. He built the famous Brihadeeshwara temple at Thanjavur in 1010 CE, a masterpiece of Dravidian architecture. His son Rajendra I ruled from 1014 to 1044 CE and extended Chola power further by campaigning into the Ganga valley and launching a naval expedition to Southeast Asia, making the Cholas a dominant regional and maritime power.

Prashastis were inscriptions composed by court poets to praise a king's ancestry, military victories, personal qualities, and achievements. They were engraved on stone pillars or temple walls. For historians, prashastis are valuable primary sources because they provide information about the political history, genealogy, and culture of the period. Examples include the Gwalior Prashasti. However, historians must read them critically since they were written to glorify kings and may exaggerate achievements.

Kings gave land grants to Brahmanas, temples, and loyal officers, transferring revenue rights over villages to them. These grants were recorded on copper plates or stone inscriptions. Since kings could not maintain a large bureaucracy everywhere, land grants allowed them to extend administrative control through these local recipients. The grantees managed the land, collected revenue, and maintained order. This system helped kings gain religious legitimacy, reward loyalty, and govern distant territories effectively during the medieval period.