Ruling the Countryside
Overview
This chapter explores how the British East India Company established control over Bengal's agriculture and revenue through the Permanent Settlement of 1793. It examines the roles of zamindars, peasants, and indigo planters, and how colonial policies transformed the Indian countryside. The chapter also covers the Indigo Revolt of 1859, highlighting peasant resistance against exploitative indigo cultivation forced upon them by British planters in Bengal and Bihar.
Typed Notes
The Company Becomes the Diwan
In August 1765, the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II granted the East India Company the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, giving it the right to collect revenue from these provinces. This was a turning point because the Company now controlled a vast and rich territory. However, the Company faced a challenge: it needed to increase revenue to finance its wars and trade, yet it also had to ensure that peasants could actually pay. Early experiments with revenue collection often led to over-taxation and decline in agricultural output.
The Permanent Settlement and Its Problems
In 1793, Lord Cornwallis introduced the Permanent Settlement in Bengal. The revenue that zamindars had to pay to the Company was fixed permanently. The British believed this would encourage zamindars to invest in improving land, since any extra income beyond the fixed revenue would be their profit. However, the plan had serious flaws. The revenue demand was set very high. Many zamindars could not pay and lost their estates under the Sunset Law. Peasants suffered because zamindars squeezed them for rent without investing in agriculture. By the early 19th century, the Company realised the settlement had not boosted agricultural production as hoped.
New Revenue Settlements: Ryotwari and Mahalwari
Disappointed with the Permanent Settlement, the Company introduced new systems elsewhere. Thomas Munro promoted the Ryotwari Settlement in Madras and Bombay, where revenue was settled directly with individual peasants (ryots). Revenue was revised periodically, not fixed permanently. In northern India, the Mahalwari Settlement was introduced, where the village headman collected revenue on behalf of the whole village (mahal). Both systems still placed heavy burdens on peasants. Revenue demands were often so high that peasants fell into debt, lost their land, and faced poverty, leading to agrarian distress across India.
Indigo Cultivation and the Revolt of 1859
Indigo was a blue dye in great demand in Europe. British planters forced Bengal peasants to grow indigo through two systems: 'nij' (on planter-owned land) and 'ryoti' (peasants signed contracts called 'satta' and received advances they could never repay). The ryoti system was more widespread and deeply exploitative. In 1859, Bengal peasants refused to grow indigo and went on strike. They attacked planter estates and refused to pay rent. The revolt spread rapidly. A government Indigo Commission in 1860 acknowledged the injustice. By the 1860s, indigo cultivation in Bengal had nearly collapsed as peasants shifted to other crops.
Key Concepts
Revision ke liye ek nazar — exam se pehle yahi padhna hai.
- 01The Permanent Settlement of 1793 fixed land revenue permanently; zamindars became owners of land and had to pay a fixed sum to the Company.
- 02The 'Sunset Law' meant that if a zamindar failed to pay revenue by sunset on a fixed date, his estate could be auctioned.
- 03Ryotwari and Mahalwari settlements were alternative revenue systems introduced in Madras, Bombay, and northern India.
- 04Under the 'nij' system, planters grew indigo on their own land; under the 'ryoti' system, they forced peasants to sign contracts to grow indigo.
- 05The Indigo Revolt of 1859 saw Bengal peasants refuse to grow indigo; the Indigo Commission of 1860 found the system was deeply exploitative.
Questions & Solutions
Pehle khud try karo — phir solution kholo. Yahi tariqa topper banata hai.
What was the Permanent Settlement of 1793 and who introduced it?
What was the Sunset Law and how did it affect zamindars?
Explain the difference between the 'nij' and 'ryoti' systems of indigo cultivation.
Why did Bengal peasants revolt against indigo cultivation in 1859?
How were the Ryotwari and Mahalwari settlements different from the Permanent Settlement?
The British East India Company transformed Indian agriculture through revenue settlements like the Permanent Settlement (1793), Ryotwari, and Mahalwari systems, all of which burdened peasants and zamindars. Forced indigo cultivation under exploitative contracts led to the Indigo Revolt of 1859 in Bengal, one of the earliest organised peasant uprisings against colonial rule. These events reveal how British economic policies reshaped and damaged India's rural society.
Chapter-end quiz
4 MCQsOption tap karo — turant pata chalega sahi ya galat, explanation ke saath.
Q1.In which year did the Mughal emperor grant the Diwani of Bengal to the East India Company?
Q2.Which revenue system was introduced by Thomas Munro in Madras?
Q3.What was the contract that peasants were forced to sign under the ryoti system of indigo cultivation called?
Q4.Which commission was set up by the government after the Indigo Revolt of 1859?
Mark karo — dashboard par progress dikhega.